อ้างอิง ของ จักรวรรดิพาร์เธีย

  1. 1 2 Fattah, Hala Mundhir (2009). A Brief History of Iraq. Infobase Publishing. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-8160-5767-2. One characteristic of the Parthians that the kings themselves maintained was their nomadic urge. The kings built or occupied numerous cities as their capitals, the most important being Ctesiphon on the Tigris River, which they built from the ancient town of Opis.
  2. 1 2 Green 1992, p. 45
  3. ↑ Skjaervo, Prods Oktor. "IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS (2) Doc – Encyclopaedia Iranica". www.iranicaonline.org (in อังกฤษ). Encyclopedia Iranica. Archived from the original on 17 November 2016. สืบค้นเมื่อ 8 February 2017. Parthian. This was the local language of the area east of the Caspian Sea and official language of the Parthian state (see ARSACIDS) and is known from inscriptions on stone and metal, including coins and seals, and from large archives of potsherd labels on wine jars from the Parthian capital of Nisa, as well as from the Manichean texts.
  4. ↑ Chyet, Michael L. (1997). Afsaruddin, Asma; Krotkoff, Georg; Zahniser, A. H. Mathias (eds.). Humanism, Culture, and Language in the Near East: Studies in Honor of Georg Krotkoff. Eisenbrauns. p. 284. ISBN 978-1-57506-020-0. In the Middle Persian period (Parthian and Sassanid Empires), Aramaic was the medium of everyday writing, and it provided scripts for writing Middle Persian, Parthian, Sogdian, and Khwarezmian.
  5. ↑ Brosius, Maria (2006). The Persians. Routledge. p. 125. ISBN 978-0-203-06815-1. The Parthians and the peoples of the Parthian empire were polytheistic. Each ethnic group, each city, and each land or kingdom was able to adhere to its own gods, their respective cults and religious rituals. In Babylon the city-god Marduk continued to be the main deity alongside the goddesses Ishtar and Nanai, while Hatra's main god, the sun-god Shamash, was revered alongside a multiplicity of other gods.
  6. ↑ Sheldon 2010, p. 231
  7. ↑ Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires". Journal of World-systems Research. 12 (2): 223. ISSN 1076-156X. Archived from the original on 17 September 2016. สืบค้นเมื่อ 16 September 2016.
  8. ↑ Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 121. doi:10.2307/1170959. JSTOR 1170959.
  9. ↑ "roughly western Khurasan" Bickerman 1983, p. 6.
  10. ↑ "Parni people". Britannica. November 7, 2019. สืบค้นเมื่อ November 23, 2019.
  11. ↑ Bivar 1983, p. 29; Brosius 2006, p. 86; Kennedy 1996, p. 74
  12. ↑ Curtis 2007, pp. 10–11; Bivar 1983, p. 33; Garthwaite 2005, p. 76
  13. ↑ "Arsaces XVII, Phraates III". Livius.org. May 7, 2019. สืบค้นเมื่อ November 23, 2019.
  14. ↑ "Battle of Carrhae". Britannica. สืบค้นเมื่อ November 23, 2019.
  15. ↑ Garthwaite 2005, p. 80; see also Strugnell 2006, pp. 251–252
  16. ↑ Cartwright, Mark (March 6, 2018). "The Roman-Parthian War 58-63 CE". Ancient History Encyclopedia. สืบค้นเมื่อ November 23, 2019.
  17. ↑ Lacey, James (2016). Great Strategic Rivalries: From The Classical World to the Cold War. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190620486.
  18. ↑ Chaumont & Schippmann 1988, pp. 574–580.

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